| Summary | | | | Extension Education (Wani, 1992). |
| Technology akin to farming existing in an | | | | Training & visits on farm level failed but |
| ecosystem need to be generated. It needs | | | | farmer-training & Farmer-research participation or |
| location specific perfection and adoption. This could | | | | demonstrations at farmers field did achieve a |
| be possible by supporting KVK & Extension | | | | great success. With constraints of men and |
| system with technology testing and refinement. | | | | resources and crop insurance in vogue, we must |
| Thus the whole discipline of Agricultural Extension | | | | induce researchers to have direct participatory |
| need reforms. On the basis of a broad review | | | | research at farmer's doors, on their fields. This |
| presented in this paper, following | | | | venture can be on cost-sharing basis or with |
| recommendations could be deduced to reform | | | | participatory involvement of Industry. (SAMETI, |
| and fine tune technology generation, dissemination | | | | Kashmir model refers). Proc. XXI EECM,2008. |
| and its delivery as an agri-pack end | | | | New Approaches |
| product.(APEP) | | | | Insect-pest Management research could be an |
| 1. The base of discipline of Agriculture extension | | | | example. Some FAO programme results are |
| may be broaded to incorporate all disciplines, | | | | encouraging (Matteson, 2000). Rice IPM research |
| management tools and techniques. It is proposed | | | | must incorporate farmer-training of farmers. New |
| to name it "Farm Business Management". It should | | | | pest management procedures are to be |
| be open to all agricultural & allied undergraduates. | | | | experimented under farmers field. Minimum use of |
| The course curriculum needs training and skill | | | | pesticide and eco-friendly application is preferred. |
| up-gradation of graduates and post-graduates in | | | | (Matteson, 2000). |
| techniques like analysis of data, survey | | | | Problems and constraints of technology transfer in |
| procedures, marketing, economics, rural sociology | | | | India have been reported, (Bairathi, 1998). Similarly |
| and farming systems etc. | | | | bio-gas technology use or adoption has been full |
| 2. Various reformation capsules like Chinese | | | | of constraints detailed . (Prasad and Singh, 1999), |
| model, African experiences, Dutch model, | | | | these range from technological, financial, |
| Netherland model, Isreal model, California model | | | | administrative and innovative ones. Proper |
| and Iranian models have been reviewed. On the | | | | mechanization and training in operation of such bio |
| basis of these models a new model for | | | | gas technology is necessary. |
| technology delivery suitable to our | | | | An information web networking developed helped |
| agro-eco-conditions has been postulated & named | | | | farmers to improve their income through training |
| as Mohi-Model. Once we receive an acceptance | | | | and advise thus participatory technology transfer |
| for the model, logistics and plans to execute it | | | | is a possible mechanism for improvement in |
| could be formulated. | | | | Agri-productivity. (Warren, 2003) |
| Introduction | | | | Netherlands Model |
| Four paradigms of Agricultural extension consists | | | | Quest for knowledge led Netherland farmers to |
| of Technology transfer, prevalent since colonial | | | | have an association for organic farm produce. This |
| times & later National Agriculture Extension | | | | association conducted its own farm research and |
| Project (NAEP), reshaped in 1970-80 as Training | | | | shared its experiences with other farmer |
| and visit system across Asia. It involved top | | | | members back in 1980. Soon they felt that their |
| down approach. Its role needs disdcussion. The | | | | experiences lacked experimental details. They |
| second paradigm called as Advisory work is what | | | | approached Govt agricultural Research |
| is present system of extension, where, | | | | Organization and started collaborating with them. |
| government agencies, NGO and technical | | | | The station mandate was to assist the |
| industries respond to farmers enquiries which we | | | | development of farming systems in the area |
| call advisory role. The third paradigm consists of | | | | called polder in the village Nagale of Netherland. |
| Human Resource Development. This innovation | | | | This combination of research and farming |
| helped Europe and North America. The Universities | | | | practices at farmers field tried various crop |
| gave training to rural youth. It is these educated, | | | | combinations and rotations. The use of |
| trained youth which became future farmers in | | | | nitrogen-fixing crops (Legumes) for maintaining soil |
| developed countries. What is known as outreach | | | | fertility and strategic management of pests and |
| system of colleges and universities is still unknown | | | | diseases, extending or delaying planting of various |
| in our Agricultural Research system including State | | | | crops etc. Some experiences of low-weed-crop |
| Agriculture Universities. A half hearted attempt as | | | | production by adopting agronomic practices like |
| Agri-business Agri-clinical is still to be backed with | | | | regular harrowing of lands and use of crop covers |
| University, research, banking and economic | | | | were tried. The farmer pressure and self |
| support. Is it which can help us to increase | | | | sustaining groups need to be involved in research |
| productivity in India or Asia needs consideration ?. | | | | experiments of SAU/ICAR and all other KVK |
| Technology adoption and impact | | | | farms and institutes (Reinders, 2007). This would |
| The impact of National Agricultural Research | | | | have both a demonstration and high adoption |
| Project (NARP) (1986-92) revealed that , | | | | value. Besides it would be a close to practical field |
| technologies generated were few and adoption | | | | research model (PFRM). |
| rate was not high, even then an estimated | | | | Horizontal, farmer to farmer contacts help |
| monetary benefit of Rs.2000/ per hectare was | | | | dissemination of agricultural information. This |
| observed. | | | | horizontal expansion of information from one |
| Low relationship between technologies developed | | | | vegetable grower to another in Suden. (Badri, |
| and adopted demands a mixed farming | | | | 2001) helped technology adoption. |
| technology capsule as 65% of our farmer's are | | | | Mass media support for rice production has been |
| small and marginal farmers. This needs a total | | | | helpful in Bihar. Out of 5 TV talks, 75% farmers |
| shift to left in our agricultural extension | | | | benefited and registered higher production and low |
| methodology. (Reddy 2001). | | | | disease damages. (1taque, 2000) similar |
| T & V programme initiated with central assistance | | | | observations are known in J&K. (Wani 2006). |
| in state has aroused all round technological | | | | Electronic technological diffusion of knowledge at |
| awareness among agricultural experts. Its dialogue | | | | Farmer's fields was helpful, local language and local |
| and technology transfer from University | | | | persons can diffuse ideas and disseminate |
| (Scientists) to experts agricultural extension | | | | information and communication faster. It is |
| workers was nearly total revolution. The (ZAREC) | | | | proposed to have innovative knowledge defusion |
| Zonal Agricultural advisory Research and Extension | | | | to women farmers through local women (Rani |
| counseling was the best plate form to discuss | | | | and Reddy, 2002). |
| main issues impeding agricultural development. The | | | | Farm - Women awareness Module |
| missionary publication of production | | | | Majority of rice producing farmers in Kangra |
| recommendations helps a lot in transfer of | | | | district of Himachal Pradesh had no extension |
| technology. The presentation of production | | | | personnel contact or electronic or print media |
| recommendations in local language is helpful in | | | | information. Continuous information on mass |
| increasing productivity in many countries. (Wani, | | | | media have significant impact on use of seed rate, |
| 2004) | | | | transplantation time and application of nitrogenous |
| Brinjal production technology adoption in Parbani, | | | | fertilizers in Rice (Thusoo and Sohi, 2000). A gap |
| Mahrastra was the result of social participation, | | | | existed in knowledge of farmers so far as dose |
| risk management guarantee, marketing | | | | of fertilizer application is concerned (Yadav and |
| orientation, information websites and | | | | Singh, 2000). |
| communication methods. (Dudhak et al 2003). | | | | Farm women adoption rate for use of farm |
| Various limitation of transport, extension staff | | | | implements was good when uses of such |
| were the reasons of poor productivity gains in | | | | implements were demonstrated to them. (Sharma |
| Malakhand agency of Pakistan. (Mohamad et al, | | | | et al 2003). |
| 2003). | | | | Farm women were given farm implements to use |
| The adoption of legume production technologies | | | | for a fortnight. Majority found them 78% |
| under Jhodpur arid conditions was low. The | | | | profitable & 77% compatible. (Sharma and |
| problems as indicated by farmers were small | | | | Sharma, 2002). Information from research to |
| farm size. Small holder farmer was less interested | | | | farmers via extension officers was examined. |
| to adopt these technologies. Non existence of | | | | The inter system communication helps in |
| market and pricing policy, risk of failure, feeding | | | | technology dissemination of dairy farmers in Iran |
| habits, social taboo and lack of Post Harvest | | | | (Rezvanfer, 2001). Rice cultivation awareness |
| Technology (PHT) were identified. (Yadev et al, | | | | improved when women farmers were trained |
| 2003). | | | | (Rama Krishnan and Mahendram, 2003). |
| Proper guidance or information support was the | | | | Agricultural Knowledge and information system |
| major constraint in adoption of improved Wheat | | | | increased economic efficiency of crop production, |
| cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. It contributed to | | | | out put costs, social upgradation and income |
| 16.8% non-adoption rate among farmers. Other | | | | generation (Carrasco et al, 2003). |
| contributory factors were technological | | | | Extension Briefs - self help options (SHO) |
| unawareness (13.33%) sloppy land (11.31%), farm | | | | Small farmers are neglected by extension |
| input cost (9.41%), non availability of irrigation | | | | services and need proper awareness in Kurram |
| (8.29%) and lack of inputs (7.95%) (Puran chand | | | | (Haq et al 2004). Agricultural extension specialists |
| et al, 2001). | | | | must specialize in community structure, |
| Social Structure & Technology Adoption | | | | development , education learning tools, technology |
| Schedule caste farmers in Maharastra have low | | | | and policy issues. Thus these disciplines or topics |
| level of rice technology adoption. Among 150 such | | | | need incorporation in Farm Business Management |
| farmers only 12.6% had high adoption rate | | | | curriculum. |
| (Mankar et al,2004). Adoption of production | | | | Partnership process, management and |
| recommendations of Cashew in Maharastra's | | | | communication should be the main thrust. |
| Sindhubrug district was 58% (Bhairamkar et al, | | | | Co-operative mechanism, farm business |
| 2004). Motto of extension programmes should be | | | | management and evaluation and monitoring tools |
| reach to unreached, teach to un-teached, be | | | | should be used. |
| known to unknown (Ganesan et al, 2003) (Wani, | | | | Seed production programme was successfully |
| 1998). Agricultural productivity in Czch Republic | | | | implemented by farm women as a self-help group |
| increased when information and communication in | | | | in Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu (Balasubramanian |
| extension system was improved for small scale | | | | and Thamizoli, 2003). Efficiency of extension lies in |
| farmers (Slavik, 2003). | | | | bottom up approach in hilly areas. Farmers |
| A survey conducted among 120 farmers in | | | | interest group awareness was most successful |
| Karnool district, Andhra Pradesh, India, revealed | | | | (Muhammad-Zafarullah 2003). Small scale farming |
| that education, social participation, scientific | | | | operations using green manure cover improved |
| orientation, risk management, mass media | | | | soil fertility. Participatory extension system helped |
| exposure, economic and market orientation were | | | | more adoption of technology in Uganda. (Miiro et |
| positively and significantly correlated with the | | | | al, 2002). |
| extent of adoption of recommended hybrid jowar | | | | Farmers training and their own information |
| (sorghum) seed practices by the farmers. | | | | networks helps small holder farmers. Topics |
| Majority of the farmers (43.33%) had a medium | | | | including community involvement, international |
| level of the adoption of the recommended | | | | multicultural projects, leadership, learning |
| practices. (Kumar et al, 2005). It is suggested that | | | | strategies, new tools and technology, volunteer |
| five categories of factors determine the adoption | | | | programme , programme development and |
| of irrigation systems and are the keys to | | | | evaluation, public policy issues, youth education and |
| designing relevant, effective and innovative | | | | partnerships needs introduction in Agri-Extension |
| irrigation extension programmes among | | | | curricula (now proposed as Farm Business |
| horticulturalists. The five categories of factors are | | | | Management). Agriculture, natural resources and |
| : Soil type and topography ; crop quality; sowing | | | | health/nutrition shall form the basic of new |
| time; saving water and crop yield (Kaine & | | | | agri-farm-business extension system (Logan, |
| Beswell, 2005). We in J&K under SREP Strategic | | | | 2004). The word extension be replaced with |
| Research extension plan of Districts notice lack of | | | | "Farm Business Management". |
| information on sowing time, seed rate and | | | | Administrative Bottlenecks |
| fertilizer application in almost all the crops. Seed | | | | While the Nusa Tenggara Timur Provience is |
| treatment awareness helped farmers to combat | | | | supposedly following the training and visit model, |
| paddy blast (Wani, 2006, 2007). | | | | agricultural extension Workers receive very little |
| Innovative Change | | | | training. Other major constraints identified include |
| Methodologies for analysis of farming system, | | | | constant restructuring of the Agricultural |
| options for development & sustainable | | | | Department, poor remuneration, oppressive |
| eco-friendly farm science technology are the | | | | authority, inadequate infrastructure, unclear job |
| needs of the hour. We do have | | | | direction, geographical conditions and bureaucracy. |
| subject-matter-specialists, but the agents for | | | | (Leta et al, 2005). This is the reason of low |
| evaluating the composite effect of various | | | | technology revolution in rural India and Asia too |
| discipline oriented technology cover is yet to be | | | | can be overcomed by transparent, NAR System, |
| structured. This is exactly where we should | | | | which need renaming as National Farm utility |
| intervene and restructure the discipline, | | | | Research and delivery system. |
| programmes and divisions of extension education | | | | By combining biophysical science with social |
| in the country. Infact a total change from existing | | | | science, it is possible to increase the impact of |
| slow action, low innovative, conventional and | | | | biophysical science findings at the farm level |
| disintegrated extension system has to be refined | | | | (Linehan et al, 2005). |
| into analytic , managemental , social, economical, | | | | Isreal Model |
| marketable system, so that the whole technology | | | | General model of extension in SAU can be seen |
| transfer could be evaluated in terms of | | | | from the role of PAU, which needs a total reform. |
| productivity and monetory gains per hectare. | | | | Should we look for Isreal model. Isreal is |
| Different cropping and livestock patterns and | | | | characterized by topographical variations and a |
| combinations need to be evaluated & monitored. | | | | wide range of soils, enabling the growing and |
| The impact analysis of wide range of Agricultural | | | | raising of a variety of crops and animals. A large |
| technology transfer be it training, entrepreneurship | | | | increase in population immediately after 1948, |
| or agri business is needed, both before and after | | | | required a rapid increase in food production, |
| technology application. | | | | followed by development of research and |
| The available research results have to pierce the | | | | extension facilities and services. In recent years |
| farmers farming practices. Non - adoption is the | | | | Isreal, like many other countries, has faced |
| result of our low productivity levels per unit of | | | | difficulties in continuing to supply the level of |
| land. Inspite of tremendous yield gains the per unit | | | | services it previously provided. This difficulty led |
| profitability has not raised the economic conditions | | | | agricultural organizations to begin assuming the |
| of our farmers. Our farm economy still fluctuates | | | | responsibility of partially financing extension for a |
| between season's, rainy years and among regions. | | | | few years, and later on trying to reflect the cost |
| Now for any widespread gains from technology, it | | | | onto the farmers. Farmers are apparently willing |
| is essential to know its impact and adoptability | | | | to pay for on-farm extension visits. Under this |
| rate. It is therefore necessary to develop new | | | | system, the Flower Board is financing many public |
| technologies after considering socio-organizational | | | | extension activities and charging the farmer for |
| arrangements, local existing soil, water, human | | | | partial costs of on-farm visits. This system |
| needs and resources. The local skills need to be | | | | operates successfully, aided by reports that are |
| known and refinement is made to improve | | | | filed electronically by agents all over Isreal to the |
| profitability. Our experience under IVLP showed a | | | | Floriculture Department Head Office, and from the |
| net productivity gains of 2 q/hac in rice production | | | | Head Office to the Flower Board. Advantages of |
| by improving local village driven plough. Similar | | | | the new system are : a tremendous increase in |
| innovative ideas local technologies with improved | | | | agent-to-farmer commitment; the professional |
| or exotic one gave good results in development | | | | level of agents remains at least the same as |
| of profitable farming . (Wani, 2004,2003, | | | | before; and the financial situation of the majority |
| 2005,2006,2007). | | | | of agents is better than before . The |
| Reform Capsules | | | | disadvantage is that some farmers are consuming |
| (i) Chinese Model | | | | less extension than before. (Wolpson, 2005) |
| Chinese experiences needs a try under our | | | | Global Successful extension experiences |
| socio-economic conditions. The successful | | | | California Model |
| improvement of Sheep and Yak herds in china | | | | California's land grant extension progamme has |
| can be a good example for use in India. Under this | | | | been successful in assisting agricultural Industries |
| project they first took stock of rangeland and | | | | develop as major world producers. Extension has |
| livestock resources. Then socio-economic | | | | been a leader in facilitating quality-of-life and |
| conditions of the livestock breeders were | | | | economic improvements for rural communities |
| analysed. Livestock and pasture management by | | | | throughout the state. However, population |
| rodents was studied. Rasngeland revegatation | | | | explosion has transformed California into an urban |
| methods were tested and propagated. Seeded | | | | state, with changing societal issues, values and |
| fodders and effect of these improved method of | | | | priorities. Agricultural extension programmes |
| pasture development on disease control and | | | | continue to directly serve a declining number of |
| profits from livestock were analysed. (Wagenin | | | | clientale that represent less than 1.5% of the |
| gem et al, 2001). Thus, the extension education | | | | population. Financial support for extension is |
| programmes should ensure facilitation of Farmer | | | | decreasing at the country and state levels, thus |
| empowerment and not dependence on subsidy. | | | | such models used by us in SAU could be |
| This means incorporating studies and programmes | | | | catastrophic and need change. |
| of Agri-livestock economics, grass land and | | | | Iranian Model |
| rangeland management, crop and tree production | | | | Iran is one of the world's top ten horticultural |
| in Agri-extension curricula. | | | | producers. However, post-harvest losses in Iran |
| (ii) African Model | | | | are six times greater than the world average. |
| A new participating approach of clubbing local and | | | | Even after establishing an agricultural extension |
| outside knowledge to solve the agricultural | | | | Service, Iran still experiences great problems in |
| problem is needed. Innovative approaches for soil | | | | reducing post-harvest losses (Jowkar, 2005). |
| and water conservation in Ethiopia and Tanzania | | | | Results revealed that education, material |
| were helpful. A new model of participatory | | | | possession, mass media exposure, extension |
| modified Technology development approach is | | | | contact, scientific orientation and risk preference |
| fast being recognized, as the only way of clubbing | | | | were significantly and positively correlated with |
| traditional and modern technologies for | | | | the knowledge level of farmers pre- and post |
| agri-development . (Kib Wana et al 2000) | | | | training. (Malite et al , 2005. |
| (iii) Dutch Model | | | | Issues |
| The total reformation of agricultural technology | | | | Agricultural development programmes often |
| transfer shall need refinement of elementary | | | | produce unexpected results. This can be |
| methodologies used in extension consisting of | | | | attributed to the fact that the target farmers |
| PRA, PERT or other specific managemental, | | | | already have their own knowledge and |
| communication and modern GIS- Geographic | | | | competencies that determine their practices. In |
| Information System use. This would involve a | | | | order to be adopted, an innovation has first to be |
| total change in Extension Education, objectives, | | | | discussed, and then appropriated by a local group |
| methodology & course curriculum. We need | | | | of farmers in their system of knowledge and in |
| agricultural networking for bringing out results of | | | | their system of meaning; subsequently the |
| transferable technologies. Experimental learning | | | | innovation may be rejected or adopted by all the |
| and knowledge sharing has to be incorporated, as | | | | farmers concerned (Mathieu, 2004). |
| research on farmers field. Farmers have to be | | | | Problems |
| part of our learning and experimentation process. | | | | The findings also revealed that the attitudes of |
| Dutch model could be used. (Leeuwis, 2000) in | | | | the respondents were significantly and positively |
| India to ensure quick technology use. Let us | | | | related to education, organizational membership, |
| evaluate technology use. It has been seen that | | | | land holding, contact with extension agent , mass |
| some progressive farmers have awareness of | | | | media exposure, socio-economic status, |
| technology but being absentee farmers, their | | | | awareness, income and material possession. Lack |
| workers have no knowledge or skills to use them | | | | of proper technical knowledge, lack of irrigation |
| in the field. Is it time to come out of "Technology | | | | facility and high cost of fertilizers/chemical were |
| dissemination Scenario" to "Technology Use Status | | | | indicated as the three most important problems |
| in the field" and "Productivity gain assessment | | | | of the tribal farm women run agriculture farms. |
| models" . | | | | (Bharali et al, 2004). |
| (iv) Mohi - Model - (Proposed Model) | | | | New Vistas |
| Experience learning, market designs, farm | | | | Agricultural extension is evolving world wide, and |
| economics, sustainable agriculture, Agri-information, | | | | there is much emphasis today on |
| communication skills and farm business shall be | | | | community-based mechanisms of dissemination in |
| the knowledge bank available to Agri-Extension & | | | | order to bring sustainable change. The factors |
| communication experts, whom we should name | | | | that make farmer groups successful in |
| "FBM" - "Farm Business Management Experts". | | | | disseminating information and technologies need to |
| The Extension Education is outdated and too | | | | be analyzed. A mixed methodology, multiple-stage |
| oftenly used and misunderstood phrase. Extension | | | | approach was used to obtain data. Dairy-goat |
| includes now every attempt to communicate with | | | | farmer groups (n=46) and individual farmers |
| farmers. Today's extension agencies can be | | | | (n=88) were interviewed. Factors that were |
| university scientists, Subject matter specialists, | | | | associated with group success in dissemination |
| Agri experts, farmers or even partially Agri | | | | included member participation, degree of jealousy |
| known NGO or their agents. Thus, the whole | | | | within the group, homogeneity of members, group |
| blame of others has to be shared by University | | | | capacity, number of linkages and type of group |
| experts. Agri-University, applied knowledge has to | | | | (Project-supported versus non-supported). Some |
| be communicated to farmers as "end product" as | | | | interventions that may increase the success of |
| pharmaceutical companies do. Thus all the current | | | | groups in dissemination include capacity- building , |
| "building block" , known knowledge has to be | | | | increasing linkages with other extension |
| computerized and stored. This has to be reshaped | | | | stakeholders, providing an environment for groups |
| and re-arranged as knowledge packs for | | | | to form, using established groups (as compared |
| innovative and whole farming capsules rather than | | | | to forming new groups), and encouraging groups |
| one commodity knowledge sharing as in the west. | | | | to form around common interests rather than for |
| We do have commodity but not composite | | | | other reasons. (Davis et al, 2004). Some methods |
| agriculture packages. A booklet on its composite | | | | in this direction are documented (Wani,2008 a). |
| effects has been published as Broad Based | | | | |